Some excerpts:
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How Experts Differ From Novices (p. 37)
Curricula that emphasize breadth of knowledge may prevent effective
organization of knowledge because there is not enough time to learn
anything in depth. Instruction that enables students to see models of
how experts organize and solve problems may be helpful. However, as
discussed in more detail in later chapters, the level of complexity of
the models must be tailored to the learners' current levels of knowledge
and skills.
The issue of retrieving relevant information provides clues about
the nature of usable knowledge. Knowledge must be "conditionalized" in
order to be retrieved when it is needed; otherwise, it remains inert
(Whitehead, 1929). Many designs for curriculum instruction and
assessment practices fail to emphasize the importance of conditionalized
knowledge. For example, texts often present facts and formulas with
little attention to helping students learn the conditions under which
they are most useful. Many assessments measure only propositional
(factual) knowledge and never ask whether students know when, where, and
why to use that knowledge.
Learning and Transfer (p. 65)
A major goal of schooling is to prepare students for flexible
adaptation to new problems and settings. The ability of students to
transfer provides an important index of learning that can help teachers
evaluate and improve their instruction. Many approaches to instruction
look equivalent when the only measure of learning is memory for
information that was specifically presented. Instructional differences
become more apparent when evaluated from the perspective of how well the
learning transfers to new problems and settings.
Several critical features of learning affect people's abilities to
transfer what they have learned. The amount and kind of initial learning
is a key determinant of the development of expertise and the ability to
transfer knowledge. Students are motivated to spend the time needed to
learn complex subjects and to solve problems that they find interesting.
Opportunities to use knowledge to create products and benefits for
others are particularly motivating for students.
While time on task is necessary for learning, it is not sufficient
for effective learning. Time spent learning for understanding has
different consequences for transfer than time spent simply memorizing
facts or procedures from textbooks or lectures. In order for learners to
gain insight into their learning and their understanding, frequent
feedback is critical: students need to monitor their learning and
actively evaluate their strategies and their current levels of
understanding.
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Larry Woolf
General Atomics
www.ga.com
www.sci-ed-ga.org